Sociólogo - Escritor

El material de este blog es de libre acceso y reproducción. No está financiado por Nestlé ni por Monsanto. Desinformarnos no depende de ellas ni de otras como ellas, pero si de ti. Apoya al periodismo independiente. Es tuyo.

"La Casa de la Magdalena" (1977), "Essays of Resistance" (1991), "El destino de Norte América", de José Carlos Mariátegui. En narrativa ha escrito la novela "Secreto de desamor", Rentería Editores, Lima 2007, "Mufida, La angolesa", Altazor Editores, Lima, 2011; "Mujeres malas Mujeres buenas", (2013) vicio perfecto vicio perpetuo, poesía. Algunos ensayos, notas periodísticas y cuentos del autor aparecen en diversos medios virtuales.
Jorge Aliaga es peruano-escocés y vive entre el Perú y Escocia.
email address:
jorgealiagacacho@hotmail.co.uk
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Aliaga_Cacho
http://www.jorgealiagacacho.com/

30 de abril de 2014

Jorge Ricardo Masetti, el Hermano del Che Guevara que iba por los montes

“Cuando sepas que he muerto di sílabas extrañas
Pronuncia flor, abeja, lágrima, pan, tormenta.”
                                                                              Roque Dalton

Por Andrés Figueroa Cornejo
El revolucionario, periodista e internacionalista de origen argentino, Jorge Ricardo Masetti, hizo amistad entrañable con Ernesto Guevara de la Serna en la Sierra Maestra, antes de la victoria de la Revolución Cubana (“Muchas veces hemos escuchado afirmar a personas de muy distinta formación ideológica –en el caso que la tuviesen- que eran revolucionarios. Se consideraban revolucionarios porque estaban en contra de algo.”).

Esa amistad, primero desconfiada y luego definitiva, transformó a Masetti de un audaz periodista bonaerense en el “Comandante Segundo”, como lo bautizó el Che (“Creían ser revolucionarios porque aspiraban –y aún luchaban – contra el presidente ladrón, asesino, demagogo…o poco elegante o vulgar. Existen personas que piensan que un gobierno debe ser derrocado porque el presidente no sabe usar los cubiertos, o pertenecen a un sector, según ellos, inferior. Y también se consideran revolucionarios.”).

Dentro de las tensiones existentes en los primeros tiempos de la gesta de la Mayor de las Antillas, Masetti siempre estuvo junto al Che, y siempre desdeñó de la presencia creciente en puestos clave del Partido Socialista Popular, como se llamaba el Partido Comunista de Cuba entonces y que, como era corriente, respondía automáticamente a los intereses de la política exterior de la URRS (“Es por eso que en un movimiento contra un gobierno, se enrolan individuos de una heterogeneidad asombrosa. Pero el mosaico se quiebra al producirse el triunfo de ese movimiento. Los que tomaron parte en él, únicamente porque estaban en contra de los hombres del mal gobierno, chocan irremisiblemente contra sus compañeros que consideran la caída de los que ostentaban el poder, sencillamente como un paso imprescindible hacia la revolución.”).

Masetti fue fundador y primer director de la legendaria Prensa Latina, primera agencia latinoamericana de noticias que se propuso romper contra el desequilibrio informativo todavía existente. Fue colaborador del Frente de Liberación Argelino a comienzo de los 60, y el “Comandante Segundo” en la provincia de Salta en el norte de Argentina, al frente del Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres, EGP (“…el revolucionario, siempre se siente obligado a luchar, a seguir adelante. Nada ni nadie logra detener ni conformar al revolucionario, porque esa es su vocación y su destino. Si no tiene armas, muerde. Si le arrancan los dientes, patea. Y si lo matan, escupe sangre.”).

A los 34 años de ser y combatir, Jorge Ricardo Masetti desapareció en la selva de Orán en Salta, en medio de la infiltración enemiga en el EGP,  mientras que sus restos son todavía buscados.

El Departamento de DDHH del Consejo Directivo Nacional de la Asociación de Trabajadores del Estado argentino y un conjunto de agrupaciones y personas organizaron y participaron entre el 21 y el 25 de abril recién pasado de un homenaje a los 50 años de la desaparición de Masetti (1964).
El autor de “Los perdidos Orígenes de la guerrilla en Argentina”, el investigador Gabriel Rot, expuso las importantes pesquisas que ha realizado tras la figura de Masetti, y aquí, para los que están y los que vendrán, les escribo su intervención en formato de entrevista.

INTELIGENCIA Y GENDARMERÍA

-¿Cuáles son los ámbitos de tus investigaciones sobre Masetti y el EGP?
“Yo quiero referirme a la lucha de la gendarmería Nacional de Argentina contra el EGP y el seguimiento de esa diligencia a través de los archivos de distintas instituciones. Es decir, a la Inteligencia y archivística que no sólo incluye el tiempo de operaciones del EGP, sino que también a la parte previa y posterior del desbaratamiento del intento guerrillero, hasta la búsqueda de los restos de Masetti y Altamira, los dos miembros del EGP -y de otros- que desaparecieron en el monte.”

-¿Puedes conceptualizar el término Inteligencia?
“Equivocadamente, muchos creen que ‘Inteligencia’ y  ‘Militar’ del Ejército son conceptos incompatibles, cuando es todo lo contrario. Esto es importante porque los registros generales nos suman a la historia del EGP una cantidad de elementos que hoy no tendríamos. Esas causas nos llegaron por dichas fuentes generales y no por otras.”

-¿Cómo así?
“Por ejemplo, debemos a los archivos de gendarmería un registro fotográfico inmenso de época de la campaña de represión. Ellos nos ofrecen información topográfica del teatro de operaciones de la guerrilla, de los testigos y las armas, de las insignias y de los uniformes que identificaban a sus combatientes, e incluso un conjunto de documentos internos del propio EGP. Por caso, el Diario de Ángel Peña (revisar), el reglamento interno del EGP, y los 4 únicos volantes que lograron distribuir y que los gendarmes supieron guardar.”

LOS ANTECEDENTES DE LA REPRESIÓN ESTATAL CONTRA EL PUEBLO

-¿Es todo lo que hay en materia de registros de la experiencia del EGP?
“Lamentablemente una enorme cantidad de materiales, documentos, cartas, fotografías que poseían las redes urbanas del EGP, hasta el momento, se encuentran extraviadas. Y digo hasta el momento, porque ellas, según pudimos descubrir, habrían sido depositadas en la caja de seguridad de un banco. Había dos militantes del EGP que tenían la titularidad de esa caja. Nosotros ubicamos a uno de ellos. Y luego de una serie de acciones judiciales que realizamos con un Doctor de la Secretaría de Derechos Humanos de la Nación, se nos informó que después de 10 años esas cajas de seguridad fueron abiertas y cremadas por un juez. Sin embargo, sospechamos fundadamente que esos materiales no fueron cremados y continúan existiendo en el nuevo registro policial o de las fuerzas armadas y de seguridad. Allí está puesto nuestro empeño actualmente.”

-¿Qué conclusiones han sacado de sus investigaciones en gendarmería?
“La Inteligencia ligada a la archivística de la Gendarmería Nacional nos arroja luz sobre las fuerzas armadas y de seguridad en otras instancias represivas, anteriores al EGP y correspondientes a los años 60 y 70, dando cuenta de un accionar represivo fuertemente instalado en el Estado que se fue especializando doctrinaria y técnicamente. De alguna manera, las certezas precedentes nos permiten atesorar una serie de enseñanzas que ninguna experiencia revolucionaria y emancipadora actual puede ignorar.”

-¿Han sido útiles para el ejercicio de la verdad y la justicia contra la tiranía cívico-militar instalada en los 70?
“La cuestión de los archivos de las fuerzas armadas y de seguridad tienen desde hace años tienen un rol principal en los procesos judiciales por delitos de lesa humanidad. Los archivos llamados “Del Terror” o del terrorismo de Estado conservan las actuaciones de las fuerzas del Estado en su sistemática aniquilación de las fuerzas sociales, individuales o grupales que representaban el escollo para la implementación de un modelo  antipopular. Esos archivos fueron confeccionados a propósito para organizar y dirigir órdenes de batalla llevadas adelante por las fuerzas armadas y de seguridad en la segunda mitad de los 70.”

-Son como los “Archivos del Terror”…
“Los archivos de la gendarmería nacional e incluso algunos de la policía no son asimilables a los “Archivos del Terror” porque no fueron organizados con el mismo fin operativo inmediato. Sin embargo, guardan en común un elemento distintivo: la sistemática observancia del Estado sobre todo el complejo social, expectante siempre de registrar y luego focalizar la acción represiva en lo que coyunturalmente se considere “el enemigo”.”

-Uno asocia “archivo” comúnmente a un legajo burocrático…
“Cuando hablo de archivos, no estoy describiendo la función administrativa y burocrática de recoger información. Lo cierto es que Archivos e Inteligencia son dos elementos imposibles de separar en la acción represiva del Estado. Gran parte de los archivos e informes pudimos revisarlo en informes anuales denominados Marco Interno, donde destacan las distintas hipótesis de conflicto que tenía cada fuerza en su momento.”

UNOS MÁS INTELIGENTES QUE OTROS Y EL ENEMIGO INTERNO

-¿Y cada rama de las FFAA tenía los mismos procedimientos, información y resultados?
“Algunas son absolutamente disparatadas. De hecho se puede discriminar entre las distintas hipótesis, de acuerdo a la maduración que se tenía en las distintas armas. Por ejemplo, los informes de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea gozan de un nivel extraordinario de detalle y de doctrina del “enemigo interno” en los 60, muy similares a los que serían posteriormente los de la dictadura. En cambio, los archivos del Ejército tenían como principal hipótesis de conflicto a la Unión Cívica Radical (!).”

LA VIGILANCIA ANTIGUA DEL PODER

-¿Entonces no fue una novedad el tipo de represión usado en la dictadura argentina, sino que ya tenía historia?
“Ya en esa época, el Estado contaba con una aceitada idea de la actividad de grupos revolucionarios. Desde fines del siglo XIX y hasta principios del siglo XX, la policía de La Plata practicaba una observancia sobre todo tipo de actividad social. En los primeros años del siglo pasado ya existe la idea del “enemigo interno”. No había sindicato ni actividad sindical, religiosa, cultural, Ateneo, biblioteca, que no estuvieran celosamente vigiladas por la policía. Con el tiempo, la policía fue socializando esa información documentada con las diversas fuerzas armadas.”

-Al principio de todo fue la policía…
“La segunda fuerza que hace punta en esto será justamente la gendarmería. La proto-gendarmería y más tarde, en los 30 y 40, la gendarmería nacional efectuará un seguimiento en fichas y datos, y uso de “buchones” (informantes). Por ejemplo, en el territorio de El Chaco (norte del país), con el objeto de desbaratar los primeros intentos guerrilleros que se conocen en Argentina, fueron achacados, y con razón, al Partido Comunista. Ya en esa época la proto-gendarmería tenía una muy específica función de Inteligencia.”

-No obstante, la larga data de la represión contra el pueblo organizado no es una excepción de Argentina…
“Durante la Guerra Fría, la Conferencia de Ejércitos Americanos que se reúne en la Capital de Venezuela en 1957, fija como nueva hipótesis de conflicto la lucha contra el comunismo. Argentina adhirió fervientemente a esa conferencia y desde entonces quedará como el paradigma interno en nuestra fuerzas armadas y de seguridad.”

LA NUEVA LABOR FUE AISLAR, BLOQUEANDO TODA EXPERIENCIA

-Justo antes de la Revolución Cubana…
“Cuando triunfó la Revolución en la Mayor de las Antillas, casi inmediatamente alrededor de una docena de guerrillas surgieron en el continente. En consecuencia, el alerta roja se encendió como nunca antes en Latinoamérica entre las clases dirigentes y comenzó una metódica vigilancia sobre toda la sociedad. En ese período cambió hasta el concepto de información. Es decir, si hasta ese instante habían existido servicios de información en todas las fuerzas, ahora se fundarán los servicios de Inteligencia en casi todas.”

-¿Cuál es la diferencia esencial (y no puedo olvidar la Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional, DINA, de los primeros años de la tiranía pinochetista en Chile, y su posterior cambio de nombre a Central Nacional de Informaciones, CNI)?
“La Inteligencia se entiende como la lectura y análisis sobre las actividades del “enemigo interno”.”

CONTRA EL COMUNISMO

-¿Qué ocurre con la gendarmería argentina después de la Conferencia en Venezuela en 1957?
“La gendarmería hará muy bien sus deberes y ofrecerá sus primeros éxitos de Inteligencia Militar contra el “enemigo interno” en 1958, cuando tempranamente detectó las actividades de un curioso militante llamado Claudio Adiego Francia, totalmente desconocido dentro del universo revolucionario argentino. Un hombre que se escribía con el Che Guevara, con John William Cooke –que le daba informaciones a Perón y al que le prometía el levantamiento de 5 a 10 mil braceros-. Desde ese entonces los territorios de Salta y Jujui fueron considerados zonas de alerta (1958).”

-¿Y sobre el EGP y Masetti?
“En el caso del EGP, gendarmería preservó informes de patrulla, órdenes de operaciones, informes del día, mapas y radiogramas que refieren con absoluta claridad al trabajo de Inteligencia que se realizó en la población, rastreando actividades revolucionarias. Una significativa fracción de estos documentos a los que tuve acceso cuando empecé a investigar al EGP hace casi 20 años, da cuenta de una red de informantes compuesta de hacendados, hombres de negocios, capataces de estancias y obrajes, peones, baqueanos, encargados de almacenes de ramos generales y trabajadores de empresas nacionales, como YPF, de la zona. Resulta muy impactante leer los informes porque están registradas hasta las compras inusuales de alimento, y ello presuponía la existencia de un grupo de personas que quería instalarse en algún sector de la zona. También encontré declaraciones de los confidentes sobre la presencia de “extraños”, su falta de aseo, sus ropas hechas jirones, barbas crecidas, calzados, comportamientos sociales. Por ejemplo: “Encuentro de dos sospechosos mal vestidos comprando muchísimas cosas en un almacén. Dos muchachos que son detenidos por la policía ferroviaria”. Estos informes significan que están haciendo un trabajo de antropología. Les retienen los materiales e inmediatamente los envían a la Universidad de Buenos Aires a chequear la firma del Rector y de profesores para demostrar si era cierto o no.”

EL PROBLEMA DE LA PRECAUCIÓN REVOLUCIONARIA

-Los pormenores son impresionantes…
“El propio director general de gendarmería, Julio Alsogaray, describe textualmente: “Una persona realizó compras importantes que llamaron la atención”, hecho que llevó a los guerrilleros a su primer fracaso. Era tal el seguimiento de la gendarmería y era tal la falta de precaución de algunos miembros del EGP, que se popularizó en el norte una famosa publicidad que decía “Compre en el Mercadito Orán donde compra el guerrillero Julián”. Una década más tarde, en el monte tucumano, la compra abultada de almasgratas (alimento) desbarató una célula del Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores (PRT).”

-¿Piensas que la caída de la guerrilla de Masetti fue debido a la pericia de la Inteligencia estatal?
“En ningún caso quiero decir que el fracaso del EGP se debió a las prácticas de Inteligencia militar que operó sobre él. Pero tampoco es un elemento que puede ser ninguneado.”

LAS FUENTES, LA CAÍDA, LOS INFILTRADOS

-¿Cómo encontraron los documentos?      
“Hay un rastro que puede seguir cualquier persona a partir de las publicaciones de la propia gendarmería que con total impunidad ha relatado todo el trabajo de Inteligencia. El famoso comandante Giovannini, que fue director de gendarmería, ha escrito varios artículos, así como el comandante general San Julián, actualmente preso por crímenes de lesa humanidad. Y para colmo, la propia gendarmería editó un libro, “Operación Santa Rosa”, donde está inscrita la sigla SIG, Servicio de Inteligencia de la Gendarmería, que es un texto en el cual aparece todo.”

-¿Qué quieres decir?
“Que sin quererlo, los miembros del EGP se encontraron con una fuerza absolutamente preparada doctrinaria y técnicamente para enfrentarlos. La gendarmería no creyó encontrarse con un grupo de contrabandistas de frontera. A mitad de camino se dio cuenta que se trataba de guerrilleros. De ese modo fue creando el cerco y luego de terminado, comenzaron la patrulla. En 50 días, desde el 3 de marzo de 1964, la gendarmería desbarató por completo al EGP, con un saldo de víctimas de ocho combatientes fallecidos y dos desaparecidos.”

-¿Y los infiltrados?
“Había dos de la policía federal, lo que demuestra la proximidad con la que  el Estado seguía todas las actividades revolucionarias. Campos y Fernández, dos sujetos siniestros que habían sido infiltrados por la policía al Partido Comunista y de allí a su ruptura en los Círculos Recabarren –sector de izquierda del PC-, y al interior de los CR que rompe tras la línea revolucionaria cubana que integra la guerrilla. Los dos infiltrados son los últimos que suben al monte. Y por el costado, la gendarmería intervino destruyendo una de las primeras columnas del EGP, creando un incidente donde hirieron a Diego Mariano, provocando un desbande donde son hechos prisioneros los demás.”

LA BÚSQUEDA

-¿Y qué ocurre con la búsqueda de Masetti, Altamira y los otros?
“Hubo distintos tipos de búsquedas de Masetti y Altamira que realizó la propia gendarmería hasta agosto de 1964; además de las búsquedas que efectuaron los militantes de las redes urbanas del EGP (los que más trabajaron en esta pesquisa fueron John William Cooke  y Alicia Eguren). En el 2005, por un pedido de Teresita Peña, hija de Hermes, para la búsqueda de los restos de su padre, tuve la suerte de ser convocado para esa investigación junto a profesionales cubanos, que resultó completamente exitosa. Encontramos a Hermes. Y por un pedido de Graciela, hija de Masetti, también iniciamos la primera búsqueda en el monte de Masetti y Altamira. Esta vez no obtuvimos resultados positivos. Ahora bien; yo creo que la búsqueda fundamental que queda por hacer no es en el terreno del EGP o Salta, sino que muy cerca de acá –Ciudad de Buenos Aires-, en el edificio Centinela, en los archivos de gendarmería nacional, donde deben estar los registros de las patrullas de búsqueda que nosotros no podemos revisar.”

Nota del Periodista: Los textos reproducidos entre paréntesis y entrecomillados antes de la entrevista fueron extraídos de “Los que luchan y los que mueren” de autoría del propio Jorge Ricardo Masetti.

Belleza Inmarcesible

Jorge Aliaga Cacho en Escocia

 Por Jorge Aliaga Cacho

Belleza inmarcesible tienes,
aparece súbita
sobre un prado,
un camino,
en la cama conyugal.

¡Estad atentos!
Capturar el momento
su máximo resplandor,
ojos cansados pueden
replicar luceros.

Es menester observar
el preciso instante,
luz en su totalidad.
Sellarla con un beso de amor
sobre un prado,
un camino
o en la cama conyugal.

29 de abril de 2014

Transforming Scotland’s Economy


Professor Andrew Cumbers, September 2013
Professor Andy Cumbers
 


 


Here’s information about an interesting and
important free event, flyer attached,
please forward to anyone who may be interested; apologoes for any cross-posting


Making wellbeing and sustainability possible:

Transforming Scotland’s Economy
 
2.00 pm Saturday 17 May,
Methodist Halls, Nicolson Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JS
 
An economy that ensures our wellbeing and doesn’t jeopardise our environment or our future?
We have an economy which depends on growth which doesn’t make us happier, demands ever more resources and increases inequality

This event will look at some of the radical changes we need:
•    transformation of energy generation
•    exerting public controls over the direction of the economy
•    finance for sustainable development; banking rules which rein in excess and greed
•    much greater income equality and environmental justice

Expert speakers will share their thoughts on these topics followed by breakouts and open debate. Speakers include:
•    Katherine Trebeck, Oxfam Scotland
•    Professor Andy Cumbers, Glasgow University
•    Dave Watson, UNISON Scotland
•    Matthew Crighton, Friends of the Earth Scotland

The speaker panel will be followed by breakout groups and discussion on key topics.

You can book here: http://foe-scotland.org.uk/TransformingScotland 
If you are FoE Scotland member also wanting to come to our AGM in the morning please book through this link: foe-scotland.org.uk/agm2014
Event on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/events/1462797263957171/?source=1
_________________________
Dr Richard Dixon
Director of Friends of the Earth Scotland
@Richard_Dixon


We are Scotland's leading environmental campaigning group - join us at http://www.foe-scotland.org.uk/WhatYouCanDo

Help us clean up Scotland's air
http://foes.do/airpollutionappeal

25 de abril de 2014

El indio Rómulo

Jorge Aliaga Cacho

Por Jorge Aliaga Cacho

Rómulo Augusto Mora Sáenz, es un incansable y excelso poeta, declamador costumbrista que representa a lo mejor de nuestra América.  Nació en Monguí, Boyacá, el 23 de abril de 1931. Es conocido, en su tierra natal, Colombia, como El indio Rómulo; el mismo que empezara su carrera artística cuando tenía edad escolar, hace ya más de cincuenta años. Ya que los gobiernos centrales de nuestro continente hacen muy poco por acercar a los pueblos, me parece que es nuestro menester el difundir la obra de estos cultores extraordinarios que el sistema del Imperio acalla y oculta.  Ganemos municipios populares que apoyen el trabajo cultural de nuestros pueblos e impulsemos el desarrollo de intercambio de artístas a nivel continental.
'Ser cultos para ser libres' nos recordaría el gran poeta cubano Jose Martí. Exijamos en cada presupuesto de las arcas del Estado, cultura, cultura, y más cultura.

Quieren descabezar Rondas Campesinas de Cajamarca


Por Teófilo Bellido
Entre el jueves 17 y el domingo 20 de abril, la Policía Nacional del Perú detuvo arbitrariamente a dirigentes de las rondas campesinas de Cajamarca, noticia que por sus características viene causando preocupación en diferentes sectores del movimiento popular.
El jueves 17 fueron intervenidos un grupo de 15 dirigentes ambientalistas mientras  se trasladaban en camiones con materiales para construir la casa comunal de las rondas campesinas  de Cajamarca en la zona de la laguna Mamacocha, centro principal del conflicto por el proyecto Conga de la empresa Yanacocha,  una de las mineras de oro más grandes del mundo. Ese mismo día, detuvieron en la Comisaría de Chanta Alta a los dirigentes ronderos:   Mariano Mendoza, al presidente de la CUNARC-Perú, Ydelso Hernández, al presidente de la Federación Regional de las Rondas Campesinas de Cajamarca, Santos Vásquez. 
Asimismo, el domingo 20 de abril, Juan Huamán Yacupaico, presidente de la Central Única Provincial de Rondas Campesinas de Hualgayoc-Bambamarca es detenido  e inmediatamente transportado a la provincia de Chota.
Ydelso Hernández, luego de ser liberado, ha denunciado el caso y comunica que recurrirá a la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Considera que estas acciones han sido  orquestadas en los más altos niveles del aparato estatal, primando los intereses de Yanacocha, mandamás en la Región Cajamarca, empresa que en veinte años se ha convertido en un Estado dentro del Estado peruano.
Una vez más se pone en evidencia la negativa obtusa al diálogo por parte de las autoridades del gobierno para negociar con las organizaciones representativas legalmente reconocidas de la población a fin de alcanzar soluciones concertadas. Se recurre a la represión que finalmente conduce a reavivar conflictos latentes. El gabinete ministerial presidido por René Cornejo está en esa dinámica.
Frente a esta delicada situación las federaciones de ronderos se han declarado en sesión permanente.
Nuevamente sale a flote el tema del proyecto minero Conga al cual se opone gran parte de la población cajamarquina cuya expresión más elevada fue la huelga regional de finales del 2011 que se extendió hasta el 2012 ganando la solidaridad de diversas regiones y organizaciones a nivel nacional.  
Desde hace algunos años, los conflictos sociales por temas mineros se han convertido en un problema muy difícil de afrontar para los gobiernos que se han visto enfrentados a organizaciones sociales y poblaciones que rechazan un determinado proyecto, principalmente por los daños que éstos ocasionarían al medio ambiente.
El problema está en  la posición que asume el régimen de turno entre la  voracidad del gran capital o las justas exigencias de la población y, como sabemos, siempre se inclina a favor de los primeros. Conga es un caso emblemático. El Presidente Ollanta Humala en su condición de candidato asumió el compromiso de darle solución escuchando a las autoridades de la región, a las organizaciones populares, a los ronderos y a las comunidades campesinas; sin embargo, investido con la banda presidencial se colocó de espaldas a ese mismo pueblo cajamarquino que le dio el voto de apoyo y  giró el sillón para escuchar más a los propietarios de Yanacocha, el principal de ellos, el millonario Roque Benavides.
Finalmente, hay que señalar que lo recientemente ocurrido con los ronderos de Cajamarca  no es un hecho aislado, se enmarca en las políticas de penalización de la protesta y la persecución a dirigentes sociales que se viene implementado a fin de acallar cualquier atisbo de reclamo. Peligrosamente el gobierno se encamina en la ruta de una represión generalizada contra cualquier perturbación que incomode a los sagrados inversionistas privados y a la profundización del continuismo neoliberal exigido por los empresarios y las transnacionales.  Un panorama nada halagüeño para las organizaciones populares.

24 de abril de 2014

Raúl Gálvez Cuéllar presenta su YERBABUENA en Huacho

 Por Jorge Aliaga Cacho
Raúl Gálvez Cuéllar es un escritor magistral y polifacético. Además de ser poeta, decimista y hombre de leyes. Gálvez Cuéllar es un gran 'performer', pues, tiene la capacidad de cautivar a su audiencia con su sola presencia.  La ciudad de Huacho no puede perderse la oportunidad de ver en escena a este gran escritor peruano de quien la crítica ha comentado tan favorablemente, incluyendo al periodista  Marco Aurelio Denegri en su excelente programa: "La Función de la Palabra".  Raúl Gálvez Cuéllar, recientemente llegado de una gira por Puerto Rico y New York, llegará a su Huacholandia cargado de anécdotas, no solamente de la selva peruana que es la región de su YERBABUENA sino, de sus viajes a otros lugares del mundo.  Como recordaremos este ilustre escritor, tacneño y universal, estudió en Francia y ha recorrido un gran número de lugares que, sin duda alguna, enriquecen su obra dándole carácter internacional.  Algo así como el mercado semanal descrito en su YERBABUENA, donde se puede encontrar desde una aguja de coser fabricada en la China, o un alfiler, hasta un tractor de fabricación checa. Así es nuestro autor que tiene de sabio, de 'loco' y de todo un poco. No recomendable para políticos tradicionales, ni para corruptos, a no ser que les guste paliza, tanda y tunda. Imperdible presentación en la hospitalaria ciudad de Huacho de este grande de la literatura peruana. Organiza la Sociedad de Poetas de la Región Lima Norte.
VIERNES 25 de Abril 

7:30 p.m. 
Presentación de la Novela "Yerbabuena" 
del escritor Raúl Gálvez Cuéllar, 
en la Casa de la Cultura de Huacho

Presentación: Poeta Oscar Castillo Banda

Comentarios: Cesar Colan Valladares

y Gustavo Riquelme Martínez


Comentario especial del Poeta y Escritor

Ecuatoriano 

Patricio Guzmán Cárdenas.

INGRESO LIBRE

Aspects of humanism in Cervantes’ work


Jorge Aliaga Cacho

By Jorge Aliaga Cacho.

Humour as a phenomenon of human experience, is much dependent on the development of the historical process. The French, during the XVIII century, laughed over ‘Don Quixote’ as a satire directed against the ‘unenlightened’ civilisation of the Middle Ages, while the English were amused by the comical aspects of its diverse scenes of farce. Latin Americans enjoyed the romantic Quixote, his ‘anti-heroism’, whereas the Germans in the voice of Heinrich Heine, inaugurated a new conceptual epoch to examine Cervantes's literary work.
‘An epoch in which the reader’s reaction to the work has been conditioned by his own awareness that he, just like the demented knight-errant, is a homeless wanderer, lost somewhere between the world as he would like it to be and the world as he knows is to be’. (1).

To introduce our topic: the general aspects of humanism in Cervantes’ work, we must picture the author as a political animal of his time who had to deal, voluntarily or involuntarily, with the kind of queries formulated by Heine in order to create his characters:

If a man is lost somewhere between the real and the unreal, surely, he must have been looking for a way out, if humanism was an alternative proposed to improve the human condition of Cervantes's sixteenth century, there is reason to believe that the interaction between the artist and his epoch would be reflected somehow, no matter how clumsily in his artistic creation. The succeeding paragraphs are intended to test the following postulate: ‘Cervantes was influenced to some degree by the ideas of Humanism’.

Humanism as a system of thought and Literary Critical Movement was devoted to human interests and literary culture. However, to understand Cervantes’ approach, his perception of the real and ‘unreal’ world is strenuous. This statement has been expressed by another great representative of Spanish letters.

‘Oh! If we could be certain of Cervantes’s style, and his own way of approaching things, we could achieve everything. Because his spiritual summit is governed by unbreakable solidarity and because a poetic style consists of philosophy, moral values, politics and science. If someone could come someday to unveil Cervantes’ style, it would be enough to extend its lines to other problems of humanity and awaken new life. Then, if there is courage and genius among us we could write in all its purity the new Spanish essay’. (2)

Cervantes did not intend to formulate an analysis of his contemporary society. He was a man of literature, empirical and learned. Nevertheless, if we explore his work sociologically we can arrive at a clear representation of this society. Cervantes’ characters, representing different social tiers in many of his works, clearly offer barbed criticism of the society in which he lived.

But our concern is not with the sociologist. Our enquiry is concerned with the artist, with the man of letters. However, if humanism is concerned with man rather than God or nature, surely in Cervantes’ literature we can find many examples where man is the central tenet of his work.

From “Don Quixote” I quote the following which reflects an essentially human content:

‘There are two sorts of originals in the world; some who are sprung from mighty kings and princes, that little by little have been so lessened and obscured, that the estates and titles of the following generations have dwindled to nothing, and ended in a point like a pyramid; others who from mean and low beginnings, still rise and rise, till at last they are raised to the very top of human greatness: so vast the difference is, that those who were something are now nothing, and those who were nothing are now something’. (3)

The latter could also be interpreted as the thoughts of one of the most influential humanists in Britain, Sir Thomas More, 1478-1532, who in 1534 refused, as a devout Catholic, to take the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII as head of the Church. If we agree in our perception, we could say that Cervantes to some degree gave ‘equal’ importance to the different characters in his ‘unreal narrative’

According to Bertrand Russel neither Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) nor Sir Thomas Moore, (1478-1532), were philosophers in the strict sense of the word. Nevertheless, these great humanists illustrate the temper of a pre-revolutionary age when there was widespread demand for moderate reform. These were the men who during Cervantes’ time were anxious to spread learning as widely as possible. If Cervantes was acquainted with the humanist discourse such as Moore’s “Utopia” and Erasmus’ “Enchiridion”, we could assume that their writings on piety and public virtue would have made an impact in Cervantes’ rendering when he considered the human weight of his characters.

Don Miguel de Cervantes had nobility. His ancestors originated from Galicia but had branched out at the time of Don Miguel, into Toledo, Seville and Alcarria. However, despite Cervantes’ nobility, he had encountered economic difficulties: a ‘good lineage ‘ but comparatively poor. He participated in wars, such as the one against the Turkish Fleet in the Mediterranean and also fought in the Battle of Lepanto against the supremacy of the Ottoman navy where he lost his left arm. In 1575 he was captured by Moorish corsairs and taken prisoner in Algiers.

Then in 1607, he moved from Valladolid to Madrid where he was assailed by jealous personal attacks from those who felt victimised by his satire. All these experiences are reflected in his work. Cervantes knew the human condition. It is possible to perceive the humanistic view in his work. However, he was not anti-clerical. The fact was that the Archbishop of Toledo, Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas, provided him with patronage, support and protection.

Manuel Durán, who worked under the direction of Américo Castro at Princeton University, researched the ambiguity of “Don Quixote” and has elucidated the following:

‘The relationship between Cervantes and his hero is a strange and wavering one, it should not come as a surprise to us if we subscribe to the theory that Cervantes was trying to express through him a whole side of his own personality’. (4)

If we accept Duran’s suggestion that Cervantes was trying to express through his characters a side of his own personality we must also accept that the personality of Cervantes was at the same time being influenced by the ideas of his time and in particular by the humanist ideas of Erasmus (1466-1536).

What is clear is that Cervantes, influenced by the appeal of Cynic philosophy, placed a high priority on the moral category in the life of man, using it as a critique and as a means of improvement for the individual and society.

Forcione has written:

‘That Erasmus saw the strengths and weakness of Cynic doctrine is clear in his treatment of it in the Enchiridion, a work which, in its general philosophical position, was concerned with the proper uses of knowledge and criticism, while also revealing, in some interesting details, a striking kinship with Cervantes’ parable of knowledge’. (5)

Forcione also scribed the following:

‘The spiritual heritage of humanism is, in fact, visible at the most profound level of Cervantes’ activity as an experiment in narrative, and, in order to glimpse it, we must be fully aware of the generic codes in which his short fiction is conceived and offered to his reader’. Cervantes proceeds with absolute freedom, combining the ‘traditional forms of disorder’ in ‘El casamiento engañoso y el coloquio de los perros’, and skilful accommodation’ in “La gitanilla’s” complex mixture of ideas and romantic conventions to a hagiographic form in ‘La fuerza de la sangre’, and violent deconstruction in ‘El celoso extremeño’. (6).

A writer is a man, or a woman, of their time. Cervantes’ Spain appears directly or indirectly in his work, that is to say, 16th Century Spain. In Cervantes’ time, no national culture was developing along entirely rational lines. Magic, mystery, belief in miracles and the presence of God and the supernatural explained the irrational attitudes of its people. At the same time, social context tensions were produced by the fact that noblemen had to find menial jobs or professions which were not held in high social esteem, in order to survive or starved in dignity. Some preferred to migrate to the ‘new continent’. These colonies were, in fact, heaven for bureaucrats, adventurers and travelling salesmen. On the other hand, the lower classes converted into picaroons had ‘almost taken over’ whole sections of cities particularly in Seville, enriched by transatlantic trade. Cervantes was fond of this city.

‘He was aware of the pettiness and cruelty of the police and courts system, and sided with the transgressor rather than with the upholders of the law’. (7)

The latter perhaps could be explained by the fact that Cervantes was arrested in Seville in 1597 and spent thirteen months in jail. In the Prologue to Part 1 of “Don Quixote” he writes:

“You may suppose it was the child of disturbance, engendered in some dismal prison, where wretchedness keeps its residence, and every dismal sound its habitation”.

Would it be ‘reasonable’ to suggest that Cervantes found the outlaws more spontaneous, sincere and friendly than the conventional members of the middle class and the petty noblemen and bureaucrats who had sent him to jail? But if we give ‘reason’ to the fact that while Cervantes worked as a tax collector, responsible for handling and accounting goods and money, he was incompetent, ‘more incompetent that any other tax collector ought to be’, thus the bureaucrats in the royal treasury pursued him for years in order to make him comply with his obligations. Cervantes’ experiences in life, and his human contradictions, it could be suggested, are part of his work. The latter is left beyond doubt when we read his Prologue to Part 1:

‘Every production must resemble its author’.

Other protagonists of Cervantes’ Spain were the writers, poets and playwrights who abounded in all cities, towns and villages, ‘forming a new group’, stimulated by the printing press and the new readers produced by the scholastic ‘boom’. The humanist message that could be extracted from Cervantes’ work responded and was inspired, by the social composition of a multi-cultural giant-region. This response is not easy to perceive because rather as with Cervantes’ characters, it is ambivalent.

Our author also saw the problem posed by the way we see things: Reality or semblance?

‘How can I be mistaken, unbelieving traitor?’ asked Don Quixote. ’Tell me, can you not see that knight coming towards us on a dapple-grey steed with a gold helmet on his head?’

‘What I see and perceiver’, replied Sancho, ‘is nothing but a man on a grey ass like mine with something glittering on his head’.

‘Why, that is Mambrinos’ helmet’, said Don Quixote. (8).

The latter is an echo of a central topic that concerned the Renaissance thinkers. The Renaissance philosophy was to change the relations between the subject and object that was common in the Middle Ages.

‘The mind was a kind of plank in which the marks of reality were imprinted; this and the subject corresponded to each other’ (9).

The latter was the Aristotelian/Scholastic philosophy that was in all minds. Cervantes, perhaps, knew and approved of such a traditional theory but did not use it in his literary conception. Moreover, humanism had started to give importance to man, breaking their passivity when reflecting on reality and giving instead the opportunity to design it: A reality of their own.

‘Humanism means appraisal and exaltation of human values, of reason, subordinating the rest; it is a new method to observe the world’. (10).

Then, what is distinguishable in Cervantes’ characters' reasoning? The answer ought to be: the use of their ‘experience’. Clearly, this is proved right in the following passage:

‘I opened, rubbed, my eyes and noticed that I was not sleeping but that I was truly awake; however, I touched my head and my chest to certify if I was the one who was there or if it was an unreal and fake ghost; but my own touch, my own sensation and my own reflection told me that I was there, the same one that I am now’. (11). Translated by the author.

In “Persiles” a similar example is also present:

‘No science, if it is science, lies; deceived is the one who has no knowledge; particularly of astrology, because of the speed of the skies, that takes with it all the stars…’(12).

The Teutonic romantics also viewed ‘Don Quixote’ as a symbol of noble aspirations: justice, heroism and chivalry in the real and daily struggles present in life. Hegel, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Grillparzer, Tieck, Sismondi and the brothers Schlegel among others sustained that view.

Professor Mario Cassela of Milan has given a more philosophical approach to Cervantes’ work. Casella explains that Cervantes: ‘epitomizes in the form of pure poetry, as he calls the novel in contradistinction to technical philosophy, the essence of the Augustinian-Thomistic tradition in metaphysics, aesthetics, and ethics. Don Quixote starts from an illusionary love of self because his chivalrous and pastoral illusions so hide the truth from him that he cannot see himself as he ought. But though illusion bounds his enthusiastic nature, his fight for justice, his refining experiences, and his high ideal of love reflected in Dulcinea, his Beatrice, prove that 'he wants to sublimate blind justice into mercy, sensuous desire into the love of charity, a sinful world into a more palpable establishment of the kingdom of God’. (13)

The Council of Trent in a series of conferences held by the Roman Catholic Church in Italy, between 1545 and 1563, was to define Catholic beliefs and counteract Protestant teachings. The council established many reforms in church practices and became an important tool in the Catholic renewal movement, the Counter-Reformation. It was the time of Tridentine Spain.

By the time the councils’ activities concluded, Cervantes had reached the age of 13. It was the year 1563. On 26 January 1564, Pope Pius IV confirmed all the council’s decrees which were adopted as part of the Catholic doctrine. These included among others the granting of ‘indulgences’, and pardons from some of the penalties for sins. The latter is reminiscent of what El Saffar wrote about “Don Quixote”: ‘´wants to sublimate blind justice into mercy’.

Another view of Cervantes is that expressed by Marcel Bataillon:

‘Cervantes is as much a typical representative of post-Tridentine Spain and consequently, we should add, a Baroque man, as Lope de Vega, but he presents another problem. Which one? A human mind…’. (14)

Other interpreters, like Joaquín Casalduero, find in Cervantes’ work, love and womanhood in different shades. He finds a contrast between flesh and spirit. Casalduero also finds a masterwork of the Baroque, ‘rich with humanist past, endless in perspective toward the future’. Americo Castro’s opinion on Cervantes’ Christianism asserts that on occasion Cervantes’ Christianity was more like that of Erasmus than of Trento.

As a philosophy humanism was devoted to human interests including literary culture, particularly classical literature. In this respect, it was the case that Cervantes was not only well versed in classical literature and particularly the works of chivalry but that he experimented with a new ‘style’ in dealing with epic writing. Cervantes was not limited to writing in the epic form. Cervantes saw that it was possible to write the history of “El Cid” in the epic style. Thus for the reader, the possibility was created of reading with a ‘quasi similar’ effect, the true adventures of Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar or the pretended ones of “Don Quixote”. Cervantes applied the norms of fiction to his works in prose. It is in this sense that Cervantes, looking back on the, by then, anachronistic romantic literature, began by parodying its bare mannerisms, though “Don Quixote”, as a ‘true knight’, values his honour more than reality itself and hence triumphs over his Creator. Harvie Ferguson has written: ‘His passion, which is the knightly devotion to chivalric order, creates its own world in opposition to any mundane experience that might deny it..’ Converted into subjective steps or projected into the world as virtuous deeds, the monk and the knight were carried beyond the social world. On the one hand contemplation and on the other action transcended the constraints of time and place to reach the realm of pure being; the love and valour which were identified as happiness’. (15)

In the prologue of “Don Quixote,” our author writes some lines which can also be examined in the context of humanist thought. In the prologue he states, ‘Do but take care to express yourself in a plain, easy manner, in well-chosen, significant, and decent terms, and to give a harmonious and pleasing turn to your periods: study to explain your thoughts, and set them in the truest light, labouring as much as possible, not to leave them dark nor intricate, but clear and intelligible: let your diverting stories be expressed in diverting terms, to kindle mirth in the melancholic, and heighten it in the gay: let mirth and humour be your superficial design, though laid on a solid foundation, to challenge attention from the ignorant, and admiration from the judicious, to secure your work from the contempt of the graver sort, and deserve the praises of men of senses; keeping your eye still fixed on the principal end of your project, the fall and destruction of that monstrous heap of ill-contrived romances, which, though abhorred by many, have so strangely infatuated the greater part of mankind. Mind this, and your business is done.

The last quotation, from “Don Quixote”, gave importance to laughter which in the transformation of feudal society, and as in earlier times, became generally available in opposition to the ‘official world’ which cannot be comic. Cervantes, Shakespeare and Rabelais during that period, were able to exploit its variable imagery. In Cervantes’ works, we can find that kind of carnival gaiety that mocks the manner of ‘icy petrified seriousness’ proper to serious writing, released from the petrified structure of the feudal hierarchy. Human personality thus emerged as the privileged subject of world history, but still free of all historical determinants. The author exists, therefore there is no standard validation against which the self can test itself. This problem of identity was also the concern of other humanists such as Montaigne, whose psychology bears such a resemblance to that of modern writers. Erasmus also places importance on the individual’s inner qualities. Erasmus saw the necessity of understanding true goodness. In Forcione’s view, the Dutch scholar suggests:

‘that authentic nobility derives from the individual’s inner qualities rather than from his social positions and speaks of the difficulties that the Christian has in distinguishing goodness and virtue from all the false values which Los vulgares, trapped in the shadow of Plato’s cave, pursue madly as if they were certain and true. For the humanists, as can be perceived in Cervantes’ works, any evident norm is in the final analysis of self-generating. (16)

For the humanists, the humanist concept represented an ideal of man’s moral and social excellence and this could be attained through the practice of human qualities such as reason, speech and free will with which he is born. This formulation was put more plainly by Erasmus: ‘Men, believe me, are not born, but rather made’. And Cervantes contributes to the achievement of that aim, through the, as Forcione put it:

‘tempering and softening in the development of the civilized individual’s personality and manners and a firm opposition in their new educational to any individualistic cult of the self and to the idealization of the human being as a creature who can lift itself above the restraints of ethical and collective bonds’. (17)

More of Cervantes's humanism can be perceived in,” Don Quixote”, chapters related to don Diego de Miranda, el Caballero del Verde Gabán. Cervantes here seems to give his worn-out hero a ‘human break’. After the adverse ‘reality’ suffered, by Don Quixote and Sancho, during the entire first part of the book and part of the second, Cervantes places the characters in a family setting, a haven of peace, a kingdom of silence, a school of ‘good behaviour’. However, in this Hidalgo sanctuary, the heroes regained their dignity only to be confronted later with more vicissitudes.

‘the episodes of the Dukes passed by among fantasy, variants of humour, pain and guffaw, in which more and more the dignity of Don Quixote and Sancho, and even Rocinante and the donkey, grew on the feudal caricature, lazy and spongy, full of emptiness and rottenness, upon, upon the richness of brocades and precious stones’. (18)

Another aspect of humanism in the work of Cervantes is the recreation, stimulated in the sixteenth century by Erasmus, the Italians and the classics, of a dialogue between the noble and the servant. El Caballero y el rústico Labrador.

-Señor, ¿Si será éste, a dicha, el moro encantado, que nos vuelve a castigar, si se dejó algo en el tintero?

- No puede ser –respondió Don Quijote-, porque los encantados no se dejan ver de nadie.

- Si no se dejan ver, déjanse sentir –dijo Sancho-, sino, díganlo mis espaldas.

- También lo podrían decir las mías –respondió don Quijote-; pero no es bastante indicio ése para creer que este que se ve seal el encantado moro. (19).

Finally, I would like to mention a historical fact which can be used as an argument to state that Cervantes´s work was, to some degree, influenced by humanist philosophy. In 1569 the graduate Juan López de Hoyos published a book about Queen Isabel´s funeral. The book included four of Cervantes’ poems. The graduate Hoyos, a distinguished Erasmist, seems to have been Cervantes’ tutor as can be assumed by the warm words expressed by him when referring to Cervantes: “Nuestro caro y amado discípulo” (“our dear and loved disciple”). (20).

Hoyos's influence on Cervantes, if there was one, to use Cervantes’s parody, must be taken into consideration in order to establish the philosophy of Cervantes. Marcel Bataillon and Américo Castro seem to agree with that perception when they stress the importance of the doctrine of Erasmus of Rotterdam in Hoyos philosophy. However, we should note that Hoyos's influence in Spain arrived late since his religious works were prohibited in that country from 1559. Therefore, we could conclude by stating that we cannot be certain to what extent Cervantes was influenced by the humanists. Though his early spiritual formation absorbed, if we believed in interaction, values orientated to a Christian spiritual endeavour rather than to the observation of Christian traditional ceremonies.

Jorge Aliaga Cacho
Master of Arts
University of Glasgow, March 1994
References


1 Werke Samtliche, quoted by Alban Forcione in “Cervantes, Aristotle and the Persiles”, p.7, Princenton Uniersity Press, 1970.


2 Ortega y Gasset, José, quoted by Manuel García Puertas in his introduction of “Cervantes y la Crisis del Renacimiento Español”, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 1962.


3 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, “Don Quixote”, pp 146-147, Book III, Chapter VII, Herfordshire: Wordsworth, 1993.


4 Durán; Manuel, “Cervantes”, p.95, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1974.


5 Forcione, Alban, “Cervantes and the Humanist Vision”, p.250, Princenton Uni, New Jersey, 1982.


6 Idem, p.28


7 Durán, Manuel, “Cervantes”, p.19, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1974.


8 Castro, Américo, “El pensamiento de Cervantes”, p.83, Editorial Hernando, Madrid, 1925.


9 Ibid, page 81.


10 Ibid, page 84.


11 Ibid, page 89.


12 Ibid, page 99.


13 El Saffar, Ruth, “Critical Essays on Cervantes”, p.16, G.K.Hall&Co, Boston, 1986.


14 Ibid, p.16.


15 Ferguson, Harvie, “The Science of Pleasure”, p.106, Routledge, London, 1990.


16 Forcione, Alban, “Cervantes and the Humanist Vision”, p.250, Princenton Uni, New Jersey, 1982.


17 Iid, p.260.


18 García Puertas, Manuel, Cervantes y la crisis del Renacimiento Español”, p.71, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 1962.


19 Cervantes, Miguel de, “El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de La Mancha”, Capítulo XVIII, p.208, Clásicos Castalia, Madrid, 1987.

20 Ibid, p.19.

20 Ibid, p.19

Don Miguel de Cervantes and Humanism

Jorge Aliaga Cacho








By Jorge Aliaga Cacho.

Humour as a phenomenon of human experience, is much dependent on the development of the historical process. The French, during the XVIII century, laughed over ‘Don Quixote’ as a satire directed against the ‘unenlightened’ civilisation of the Middle Ages, while the English were amused by the comical aspects of its diverse scenes of farce. Latin Americans enjoyed the romantic Quixote, his ‘anti-heroism’, whereas the Germans in the voice of Heinrich Heine, inaugurated a new conceptual epoch to examine Cervantes's literary work.
‘An epoch in which the reader’s reaction to the work has been conditioned by his own awareness that he, just like the demented knight-errant, is a homeless wanderer, lost somewhere between the world as he would like it to be and the world as he knows is to be’. (1).

To introduce our topic: the general aspects of humanism in Cervantes’ work, we must picture the author as a political animal of his time who had to deal, voluntarily or involuntarily, with the kind of queries formulated by Heine in order to create his characters:

If man is lost somewhere between the real and the unreal, surely, he must have been looking for a way out, if humanism was an alternative proposed to improve the human condition of Cervante’s sixteenth century, there is reason to believe that the interaction between the artist and his epoch would be reflected somehow, no matter how clumsily in his artistic creation. The succeeding paragraphs are intended to test the following postulate: ‘Cervantes was influenced to some degree by the ideas of Humanism’.

Humanism as a system of thought and Literary Critical Movement was devoted to human interests and literary culture. However, to understand Cervantes’ approach, his perception of the real and ‘unreal’ world is strenuous. This statement has been expressed by another great representative of Spanish letters.

‘Oh! If we could be certain of Cervantes’s style, and his own way of approaching things, we could achieve everything. Because his spiritual summit is governed by unbreakable solidarity and because a poetic style consists of philosophy, moral values, politics and science. If someone could come someday to unveil Cervantes’ style, it would be enough to extend its lines to other problems of humanity and awaken new life. Then, if there is courage and genius among us we could write in all its purity the new Spanish essay’. (2)

Cervantes did not intend to formulate an analysis of his contemporary society. He was a man of literature, empirical and learned. Nevertheless, if we explore his work sociologically we can arrive at a clear representation of this society. Cervantes’ characters, representing different social tiers in many of his works, clearly offer barbed criticism of the society in which he lived.

But our concern is not with the sociologist. Our enquiry is concerned with the artist, with the man of letters. However, if humanism is concerned with man rather than God or nature, surely in Cervantes’ literature we can find many examples where man is the central tenet of his work.

From “Don Quixote” I quote the following which reflects an essentially human content:

‘There are two sorts of originals in the world; some who are sprung from mighty kings and princes, that little by little have been so lessened and obscured, that the estates and titles of the following generations have dwindled to nothing, and ended in a point like a pyramid; others who from mean and low beginnings, still rise and rise, till at last they are raised to the very top of human greatness: so vast the difference is, that those who were something are now nothing, and those who were nothing are now something’. (3)

The latter could also be interpreted as the thoughts of one of the most influential humanists in Britain, Sir Thomas More, 1478-1532, who in 1534 refused, as a devout Catholic, to take the oath of supremacy to Henry VIII as head of the Church. If we agree in our perception, we could say that Cervantes to some degree gave ‘equal’ importance to the different characters in his ‘unreal narrative’

According to Bertrand Russel neither Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) nor Sir Thomas Moore, (1478-1532), were philosophers in the strict sense of the word. Nevertheless, these great humanists illustrate the temper of a pre-revolutionary age when there was widespread demand for moderate reform. These were the men who during Cervantes’ time were anxious to spread learning as widely as possible. If Cervantes was acquainted with the humanist discourse such as Moore’s “Utopia” and Erasmus’ “Enchiridion”, we could assume that their writings on piety and public virtue would have made an impact in Cervantes’ rendering when he considered the human weight of his characters.

Don Miguel de Cervantes had nobility. His ancestors originated from Galicia but had branched out at the time of Don Miguel, into Toledo, Seville and Alcarria. However, despite Cervantes’ nobility, he had encountered economic difficulties: a ‘good lineage ‘ but comparatively poor. He participated in wars, such as the one against the Turkish Fleet in the Mediterranean and also fought in the Battle of Lepanto against the supremacy of the Ottoman navy where he lost his left arm. In 1575 he was captured by Moorish corsairs and taken prisoner in Algiers.

Then in 1607, he moved from Valladolid to Madrid where he was assailed by jealous personal attacks from those who felt victimised by his satire. All these experiences are reflected in his work. Cervantes knew the human condition. It is possible to perceive the humanistic view in his work. However, he was not anti-clerical. The fact was that the Archbishop of Toledo, Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas, provided him with patronage, support and protection.

Manuel Durán, who worked under the direction of Américo Castro at Princeton University, researched the ambiguity of “Don Quixote” and has elucidated the following:

‘The relationship between Cervantes and his hero is a strange and wavering one, it should not come as a surprise to us if we subscribe to the theory that Cervantes was trying to express through him a whole side of his own personality’. (4)

If we accept Duran’s suggestion that Cervantes was trying to express through his characters a side of his own personality we must also accept that the personality of Cervantes was at the same time being influenced by the ideas of his time and in particular by the humanist ideas of Erasmus (1466-1536).

What is clear is that Cervantes, influenced by the appeal of Cynic philosophy, placed a high priority on the moral category in the life of man, using it as a critique and as a means of improvement for the individual and society.

Forcione has written:

‘That Erasmus saw the strengths and weakness of Cynic doctrine is clear in his treatment of it in the Enchiridion, a work which, in its general philosophical position, was concerned with the proper uses of knowledge and criticism, while also revealing, in some interesting details, a striking kinship with Cervantes’ parable of knowledge’. (5)

Forcione also scribed the following:

‘The spiritual heritage of humanism is, in fact, visible at the most profound level of Cervantes’ activity as an experiment in narrative, and, in order to glimpse it, we must be fully aware of the generic codes in which his short fiction is conceived and offered to his reader’. Cervantes proceeds with absolute freedom, combining the ‘traditional forms of disorder’ in ‘El casamiento engañoso y el coloquio de los perros’, and skilful accommodation’ in “La gitanilla’s” complex mixture of ideas and romantic conventions to a hagiographic form in ‘La fuerza de la sangre’, and violent deconstruction in ‘El celoso extremeño’. (6).

A writer is a man, or a woman, of their time. Cervantes’ Spain appears directly or indirectly in his work, that is to say, 16th Century Spain. In Cervantes’ time, no national culture was developing along entirely rational lines. Magic, mystery, belief in miracles and the presence of God and the supernatural explained the irrational attitudes of its people. At the same time, social context tensions were produced by the fact that noblemen had to find menial jobs or professions which were not held in high social esteem, in order to survive or starved in dignity. Some preferred to migrate to the ‘new continent’. These colonies were, in fact, heaven for bureaucrats, adventurers and travelling salesmen. On the other hand, the lower classes converted into picaroons had ‘almost taken over’ whole sections of cities particularly in Seville, enriched by transatlantic trade. Cervantes was fond of this city.

‘He was aware of the pettiness and cruelty of the police and courts system, and sided with the transgressor rather than with the upholders of the law’. (7)

The latter perhaps could be explained by the fact that Cervantes was arrested in Seville in 1597 and spent thirteen months in jail. In the Prologue to Part 1 of “Don Quixote” he writes:

“You may suppose it was the child of disturbance, engendered in some dismal prison, where wretchedness keeps its residence, and every dismal sound its habitation”.

Would it be ‘reasonable’ to suggest that Cervantes found the outlaws more spontaneous, sincere and friendly than the conventional members of the middle class and the petty noblemen and bureaucrats who had sent him to jail? But if we give ‘reason’ to the fact that while Cervantes worked as a tax collector, responsible for handling and accounting goods and money, he was incompetent, ‘more incompetent that any other tax collector ought to be’, thus the bureaucrats in the royal treasury pursued him for years in order to make him comply with his obligations. Cervantes’ experiences in life, and his human contradictions, it could be suggested, are part of his work. The latter is left beyond doubt when we read his Prologue to Part 1:

‘Every production must resemble its author’.

Other protagonists of Cervantes’ Spain were the writers, poets and playwrights who abounded in all cities, towns and villages, ‘forming a new group’, stimulated by the printing press and the new readers produced by the scholastic ‘boom’. The humanist message that could be extracted from Cervantes’ work responded and was inspired, by the social composition of a multi-cultural giant-region. This response is not easy to perceive because rather as with Cervantes’ characters, it is ambivalent.

Our author also saw the problem posed by the way we see things: Reality or semblance?

‘How can I be mistaken, unbelieving traitor?’ asked Don Quixote. ’Tell me, can you not see that knight coming towards us on a dapple-grey steed with a gold helmet on his head?’

‘What I see and perceiver’, replied Sancho, ‘is nothing but a man on a grey ass like mine with something glittering on his head’.

‘Why, that is Mambrinos’ helmet’, said Don Quixote. (8).

The latter is an echo of a central topic that concerned the Renaissance thinkers. The Renaissance philosophy was to change the relations between the subject and object that was common in the Middle Ages.

‘The mind was a kind of plank in which the marks of reality were imprinted; this and the subject corresponded to each other’ (9).

The latter was the Aristotelian/Scholastic philosophy that was in all minds. Cervantes, perhaps, knew and approved of such a traditional theory but did not use it in his literary conception. Moreover, humanism had started to give importance to man, breaking their passivity when reflecting on reality and giving instead the opportunity to design it: A reality of their own.

‘Humanism means appraisal and exaltation of human values, of reason, subordinating the rest; it is a new method to observe the world’. (10).

Then, what is distinguishable in Cervantes’ characters' reasoning? The answer ought to be: the use of their ‘experience’. Clearly, this is proved right in the following passage:

‘I opened, rubbed, my eyes and noticed that I was not sleeping but that I was truly awake; however, I touched my head and my chest to certify if I was the one who was there or if it was an unreal and fake ghost; but my own touch, my own sensation and my own reflection told me that I was there, the same one that I am now’. (11). Translated by the author.

In “Persiles” a similar example is also present:

‘No science, if it is science, lies; deceived is the one who has no knowledge; particularly of astrology, because of the speed of the skies, that takes with it all the stars…’(12).

The Teutonic romantics also viewed ‘Don Quixote’ as a symbol of noble aspirations: justice, heroism and chivalry in the real and daily struggles present in life. Hegel, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Grillparzer, Tieck, Sismondi and the brothers Schlegel among others sustained that view.

Professor Mario Cassela of Milan has given a more philosophical approach to Cervantes’ work. Casella explains that Cervantes: ‘epitomizes in the form of pure poetry, as he calls the novel in contradistinction to technical philosophy, the essence of the Augustinian-Thomistic tradition in metaphysics, aesthetics, and ethics. Don Quixote starts from an illusionary love of self because his chivalrous and pastoral illusions so hide the truth from him that he cannot see himself as he ought. But though illusion bounds his enthusiastic nature, his fight for justice, his refining experiences, and his high ideal of love reflected in Dulcinea, his Beatrice, prove that 'he wants to sublimate blind justice into mercy, sensuous desire into the love of charity, a sinful world into a more palpable establishment of the kingdom of God’. (13)

The Council of Trent in a series of conferences held by the Roman Catholic Church in Italy, between 1545 and 1563, was to define Catholic beliefs and counteract Protestant teachings. The council established many reforms in church practices and became an important tool in the Catholic renewal movement, the Counter-Reformation. It was the time of Tridentine Spain.

By the time the councils’ activities concluded, Cervantes had reached the age of 13. It was the year 1563. On 26 January 1564, Pope Pius IV confirmed all the council’s decrees which were adopted as part of the Catholic doctrine. These included among others the granting of ‘indulgences’, and pardons from some of the penalties for sins. The latter is reminiscent of what El Saffar wrote about “Don Quixote”: ‘´wants to sublimate blind justice into mercy’.

Another view of Cervantes is that expressed by Marcel Bataillon:

‘Cervantes is as much a typical representative of post-Tridentine Spain and consequently, we should add, a Baroque man, as Lope de Vega, but he presents another problem. Which one? A human mind…’. (14)

Other interpreters, like Joaquín Casalduero, find in Cervantes’ work, love and womanhood in different shades. He finds a contrast between flesh and spirit. Casalduero also finds a masterwork of the Baroque, ‘rich with humanist past, endless in perspective toward the future’. Americo Castro’s opinion on Cervantes’ Christianism asserts that on occasion Cervantes’ Christianity was more like that of Erasmus than of Trento.

As a philosophy humanism was devoted to human interests including literary culture, particularly classical literature. In this respect, it was the case that Cervantes was not only well versed in classical literature and particularly the works of chivalry but that he experimented with a new ‘style’ in dealing with epic writing. Cervantes was not limited to writing in the epic form. Cervantes saw that it was possible to write the history of “El Cid” in the epic style. Thus for the reader, the possibility was created of reading with a ‘quasi similar’ effect, the true adventures of Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar or the pretended ones of “Don Quixote”. Cervantes applied the norms of fiction to his works in prose. It is in this sense that Cervantes, looking back on the, by then, anachronistic romantic literature, began by parodying its bare mannerisms, though “Don Quixote”, as a ‘true knight’, values his honour more than reality itself and hence triumphs over his Creator. Harvie Ferguson has written: ‘His passion, which is the knightly devotion to chivalric order, creates its own world in opposition to any mundane experience that might deny it..’ Converted into subjective steps or projected into the world as virtuous deeds, the monk and the knight were carried beyond the social world. On the one hand contemplation and on the other action transcended the constraints of time and place to reach the realm of pure being; the love and valour which were identified as happiness’. (15)

In the prologue of “Don Quixote,” our author writes some lines which can also be examined in the context of humanist thought. In the prologue he states, ‘Do but take care to express yourself in a plain, easy manner, in well-chosen, significant, and decent terms, and to give a harmonious and pleasing turn to your periods: study to explain your thoughts, and set them in the truest light, labouring as much as possible, not to leave them dark nor intricate, but clear and intelligible: let your diverting stories be expressed in diverting terms, to kindle mirth in the melancholic, and heighten it in the gay: let mirth and humour be your superficial design, though laid on a solid foundation, to challenge attention from the ignorant, and admiration from the judicious, to secure your work from the contempt of the graver sort, and deserve the praises of men of senses; keeping your eye still fixed on the principal end of your project, the fall and destruction of that monstrous heap of ill-contrived romances, which, though abhorred by many, have so strangely infatuated the greater part of mankind. Mind this, and your business is done.

The last quotation, from “Don Quixote”, gave importance to laughter which in the transformation of feudal society, and as in earlier times, became generally available in opposition to the ‘official world’ which cannot be comic. Cervantes, Shakespeare and Rabelais during that period, were able to exploit its variable imagery. In Cervantes’ works, we can find that kind of carnival gaiety that mocks the manner of ‘icy petrified seriousness’ proper to serious writing, released from the petrified structure of the feudal hierarchy. Human personality thus emerged as the privileged subject of world history, but still free of all historical determinants. The author exists, therefore there is no standard validation against which the self can test itself. This problem of identity was also the concern of other humanists such as Montaigne, whose psychology bears such a resemblance to that of modern writers. Erasmus also places importance on the individual’s inner qualities. Erasmus saw the necessity of understanding true goodness. In Forcione’s view, the Dutch scholar suggests:

‘that authentic nobility derives from the individual’s inner qualities rather than from his social positions and speaks of the difficulties that the Christian has in distinguishing goodness and virtue from all the false values which Los vulgares, trapped in the shadow of Plato’s cave, pursue madly as if they were certain and true. For the humanists, as can be perceived in Cervantes’ works, any evident norm is in the final analysis of self-generating. (16)

For the humanists, the humanist concept represented an ideal of man’s moral and social excellence and this could be attained through the practice of human qualities such as reason, speech and free will with which he is born. This formulation was put more plainly by Erasmus: ‘Men, believe me, are not born, but rather made’. And Cervantes contributes to the achievement of that aim, through the, as Forcione put it:

‘tempering and softening in the development of the civilized individual’s personality and manners and a firm opposition in their new educational to any individualistic cult of the self and to the idealization of the human being as a creature who can lift itself above the restraints of ethical and collective bonds’. (17)

More of Cervantes's humanism can be perceived in,” Don Quixote”, chapters related to don Diego de Miranda, el Caballero del Verde Gabán. Cervantes here seems to give his worn-out hero a ‘human break’. After the adverse ‘reality’ suffered, by Don Quixote and Sancho, during the entire first part of the book and part of the second, Cervantes places the characters in a family setting, a haven of peace, a kingdom of silence, a school of ‘good behaviour’. However, in this Hidalgo sanctuary, the heroes regained their dignity only to be confronted later with more vicissitudes.

‘the episodes of the Dukes passed by among fantasy, variants of humour, pain and guffaw, in which more and more the dignity of Don Quixote and Sancho, and even Rocinante and the donkey, grew on the feudal caricature, lazy and spongy, full of emptiness and rottenness, upon, upon the richness of brocades and precious stones’. (18)

Another aspect of humanism in the work of Cervantes is the recreation, stimulated in the sixteenth century by Erasmus, the Italians and the classics, of a dialogue between the noble and the servant. El Caballero y el rústico Labrador.

-Señor, ¿Si será éste, a dicha, el moro encantado, que nos vuelve a castigar, si se dejó algo en el tintero?

- No puede ser –respondió Don Quijote-, porque los encantados no se dejan ver de nadie.

- Si no se dejan ver, déjanse sentir –dijo Sancho-, sino, díganlo mis espaldas.

- También lo podrían decir las mías –respondió don Quijote-; pero no es bastante indicio ése para creer que este que se ve seal el encantado moro. (19).

Finally, I would like to mention a historical fact which can be used as an argument to state that Cervantes´s work was, to some degree, influenced by humanist philosophy. In 1569 the graduate Juan López de Hoyos published a book about Queen Isabel´s funeral. The book included four of Cervantes’ poems. The graduate Hoyos, a distinguished Erasmist, seems to have been Cervantes’ tutor as can be assumed by the warm words expressed by him when referring to Cervantes: “Nuestro caro y amado discipulo” (“our dear and loved disciple”). (20).

Hoyos's influence on Cervantes, if there was one, to use Cervantes’s parody, must be taken into consideration in order to establish the philosophy of Cervantes. Marcel Bataillon and Américo Castro seem to agree with that perception when they stress the importance of the doctrine of Erasmus of Rotterdam in Hoyos philosophy. However, we should note that Hoyos's influence in Spain arrived late since his religious works were prohibited in that country from 1559. Therefore, we could conclude by stating that we cannot be certain to what extent Cervantes was influenced by the humanists. Though his early spiritual formation absorbed, if we believed in interaction, values orientated to a Christian spiritual endeavour rather than to the observation of Christian traditional ceremonies.

Jorge Aliaga Cacho
Master of Arts
University of Glasgow, March 1994
References


1 Werke Samtliche, quoted by Alban Forcione in “Cervantes, Aristotle and the Persiles”, p.7, Princenton Uniersity Press, 1970.


2 Ortega y Gasset, José, quoted by Manuel García Puertas in his introduction of “Cervantes y la Crisis del Renacimiento Español”, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 1962.


3 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, “Don Quixote”, pp 146-147, Book III, Chapter VII, Herfordshire: Wordsworth, 1993.


4 Durán; Manuel, “Cervantes”, p.95, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1974.


5 Forcione, Alban, “Cervantes and the Humanist Vision”, p.250, Princenton Uni, New Jersey, 1982.


6 Idem, p.28


7 Durán, Manuel, “Cervantes”, p.19, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1974.


8 Castro, Américo, “El pensamiento de Cervantes”, p.83, Editorial Hernando, Madrid, 1925.


9 Ibid, page 81.


10 Ibid, page 84.


11 Ibid, page 89.


12 Ibid, page 99.


13 El Saffar, Ruth, “Critical Essays on Cervantes”, p.16, G.K.Hall&Co, Boston, 1986.


14 Ibid, p.16.


15 Ferguson, Harvie, “The Science of Pleasure”, p.106, Routledge, London, 1990.


16 Forcione, Alban, “Cervantes and the Humanist Vision”, p.250, Princenton Uni, New Jersey, 1982.


17 Iid, p.260.


18 García Puertas, Manuel, Cervantes y la crisis del Renacimiento Español”, p.71, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, 1962.


19 Cervantes, Miguel de, “El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de La Mancha”, Capítulo XVIII, p.208, Clásicos Castalia, Madrid, 1987.

20 Ibid, p.19.

20 Ibid, p.19